9-82. A COA is a broad potential solution to an identified problem. The COA development step generates options for subsequent analysis and comparison that satisfy the commander’s intent and planning guidance. During COA development, planners use the problem statement, mission statement, commander’s intent, planning guidance, and various knowledge products developed during mission analysis. (See figure 9-4.)

9-207. Limiting the number of COAs developed and war-gamed can save planning time. If time is extremely short, the commander can direct development of only one COA. In this case, the goal is an acceptable COA that meets mission requirements in the time available. This technique saves the most time. The fastest way to develop a plan has the commander directing development of one COA with branches against the most likely enemy COA or most damaging civil situation or condition. However, this technique should be used only when time is severely limited. In such cases, this choice of COA is often intuitive, relying on the commander’s experience and judgment. The commander determines which staff officers are essential to assist in COA development. Normally commanders require the intelligence officer, operations officer, plans officer, chief of fires (fire support officer), engineer officer, civil affairs operations officer, information operations officer, military information support operations officer, electronic warfare officer, and COS (XO). They may also include subordinate commanders, if available, either in person or by video teleconference. This team quickly develops a flexible COA that it feels will accomplish the mission. The commander mentally war-games this COA and gives it to the staff to refine.

3-9. Mission success depends as much on preparation as on planning. Higher headquarters may develop the best of plans; however, plans serve little purpose if subordinates do not receive them in time to understand them, develop their own plans, and prepare for the upcoming operation. As part of the operational timeline, commanders allocate sufficient time for preparation. This includes time for detaching units, moving forces, and receiving and integrating new units and Soldiers into the force. It includes time to rehearse the operation to include designating the type of rehearsals. Commanders prioritize preparation activities by issuing specific instructions in WARNORDs and the OPORD.

2-11. For Army forces, decision making focuses on selecting a course of action that is most favorable to accomplishing the mission. Decision making can be deliberate, using the military decision-making process and a full staff, or decision making can be done very quickly by the commander alone. A commander’s decisions ultimately guide the actions of the force.

2-5. A product of planning is a plan or order—a directive for future action. Commanders issue plans and orders to subordinates to communicate their visualization of the operations and to direct action. Plans and orders synchronize the action of forces in time, space, and purpose to achieve objectives and accomplish the mission. They inform others outside the organization on how to cooperate and provide support.

5-9. All maneuver forces can conduct security operations. All three types of Army BCTs—armored, infantry, and Stryker—conduct security operations as part of their mission-essential task lists. Commanders ensure that subordinate units conduct security operations required by the situation. Habitual support relationships with attachments and standard operating procedures are required to obtain proficiency in the conduct of these operations.

2-19. Task-organizing is the act of designing a force, support staff, or sustainment package of specific size and composition to meet a unique task or mission (ADP 3-0). It includes providing assets to subordinate commanders and establishing their command and support relationships. Some assets are retained under the commander’s immediate control to retain flexibility to exploit opportunities or counter threats.

3-76. The JFC is the designated engagement authority in theater, though engagement authorization is typically delegated to a subordinate commander. The subordinate commander, the area air defense commander, may in turn further delegate the authority to execute engagements; further delegation is based on mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, and civil considerations. The kill chain is the successive linkages of commanders who can authorize engagements of air and missile threats. The kill chain begins with a joint authority, such as the area air defense commander, and may include ADA commanders down to battery level. The kill chain is involved in all engagement decisions whether centralized or decentralized.

2-79. The decisive operation is the operation that directly accomplishes the mission (ADP 3-0). Weighting the decisive operation or the main effort is a basic tactical concept closely associated with the mass and maneuver principles of war. The purpose for weighting the decisive operation or main effort is to concentrate the effects of combat power at the most advantageous place and time. A unit commander assumes risk in some areas to provide the resources required to mass combat power at a few key locations to support the unit’s decisive operation or main effort.

14-20. The new options must conform to the commander’s intent. Possible COAs may alter the concept of operations and CCIRs, if they remain within the commander’s intent. However, the commander approves changes to the CCIRs. Functional cell chiefs and other staff leaders identify areas that may be affected within their areas of expertise by proposed changes to the order or mission. Course of action considerations include, but are not limited to, those shown in table 14-3.

4-26. Decisive, shaping, and sustaining operations lend themselves to a broad conceptual orientation. The decisive operation is the operation that directly accomplishes the mission. The decisive operation is the focal point around which commanders design an entire operation. The decisive operation is designed to determine the outcome of a major operation, battle, or engagement. Multiple subordinate units may be engaged in the same decisive operation across multiple domains. Decisive operations lead directly to the accomplishment of the commander’s intent.

1-84. Leadership refers to influencing people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation, while operating to accomplish the mission and improve the organization. It is the unifying and multiplying element of combat power. Commanders lead through a combination of personal example, persuasion, and compulsion. Commanders employ leadership to translate decisions into effective action by forces.

5-35. Conventional and special operations forces may operate in proximity to each other to accomplish the JFC’s mission. These two forces help and complement each other with mutual support so they can accomplish an objective that otherwise might not be attainable. Extended or large-scale operations involving both conventional and special operations forces require the integration and synchronization of conventional and special operations efforts. The JTF commander must consider the different capabilities and limitations of both conventional and special operations forces, particularly in the areas of command and control and sustainment. Exchanging liaison elements between conventional and special operations staffs further integrates efforts of all forces concerned. (For more information on coordinating conventional and special operations forces, see FM 6-05.)

9-44. Risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and controlling risks arising from operational factors and making decisions that balance risk cost with mission benefits (JP 3-0). During mission analysis, the commander and staff focus on identifying and assessing hazards. Developing specific control measures to mitigate those hazards occurs during course of action development.

10-7. Ideally, a battalion headquarters issues at least three WARNORDs to subordinates when conducting the MDMP as depicted in figure 10-1. WARNORDs are issued upon receipt of mission, completion of mission analysis, and when the commander approves a COA. However, the number of WARNORDs is not fixed. WARNORDs serve a function in planning similar to that of fragmentary orders (FRAGORDs) during execution. Commanders may issue a WARNORD whenever they need to disseminate additional planning information or initiate necessary preparatory action, such as movement or reconnaissance.

1-43. Because risk is part of every operation, it cannot be avoided. Commanders analyze risk in collaboration with subordinates to help determine what level of risk exists and how to mitigate it. When considering how much risk to accept with a COA, commanders consider risk to the force and risk to the mission against the perceived benefit. They apply judgment with regard to the importance of an objective, time available, and anticipated cost. Commanders need to balance the tension between creating opportunities, protecting the force, and accepting and managing risks that must be taken to accomplish their mission.

breach – 1. A tactical mission task in which the unit employs all available means to break through or establish a passage through an enemy defense, obstacle, minefield, or fortification. (FM 3-90-1) 2. Synchronized combined arms activity under the control of the maneuver commander conducted to allow maneuver through an obstacle. (ATP 3-90.4)

reconstitution – (DOD) 2. Those actions, including regeneration and reorganization, commanders plan and implement to restore units to a desired level of combat effectiveness commensurate with mission requirements and available resources. (JP 3-02) Referenced in ADP 3-90. (Army) Actions that commanders plan and implement to restore units to a desired level of combat effectiveness commensurate with mission requirements and available resources. (ATP 3-21.20)

10-12. Receive the mission may occur in several ways. It may begin when the initial WARNORD or OPORD arrives from higher headquarters or when a leader anticipates a new mission. Frequently, leaders receive a mission in a FRAGORD over the radio. Ideally, they receive a series of WARNORDs, the OPORD, and a briefing from their commander. Normally, after receiving an OPORD leaders give a confirmation brief to their higher commander to ensure they understand the higher commander’s intent and concept of operations. The leader obtains clarification on any portions of the higher headquarters plan as required.

1-58. Because a commander may need a running estimate at any time, staffs must develop, update, and continuously revise running estimates while in garrison and during operations. At a minimum, staffs maintain a running estimate on friendly capabilities while in garrison or when not actively engaged in operations. Commanders and staff elements immediately begin updating their running estimates upon receipt of a mission. They continue to build and maintain their running estimates throughout the operations process in planning, preparation, execution, and assessment.